Click on the tabs below to see completed projects:
PI: Dr. Rachel Fargason
Co-I: Dr. Despina Stavrinos
Funding Sponsor: Photonic Developments LLC, the Lighting Innovations Institute, The UAB Roybal Center for Translational Research on Aging and Mobility
Abstract: Bright Light Therapy (BLT): A Pilot Study was a study on examining the effect of Bright Light Therapy on ADHD subjects. Using driving as a measure of focus, motor-vehicle injury risk was evaluated within three distraction conditions: talking on a cell phone, texting on a cell phone, and no task. Drivers were asked to drive through the same simulation, before and after therapy. Therapy consisted of blue wavelength light-blocking glasses, which were worn during evening hours to counteract the phase-delaying effect of light. The use of the driving simulator was provided through the UAB Roybal Center for Translational Research on Aging and Mobility.
Status: Data Analysis
PI: Dr. Despina Stavrinos
Funding Sponsor: University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine
Abstract: Cardiovascular Health, Personality, and Distracted Driving (CV) was a project that examined the effects of distracted driving on cardiovascular reactivity as well as the effect of Type A personality on driving performance and willingness to engage in distracted driving behaviors. The study attempted to bridge a gap between prior studies that have been done on personality, cardiovascular reactivity, and distracted driving by examining the effects of all three variables within the same sample. Undergraduate Introductory Psychology students were recruited to complete a self-report screening measure, the Jenkins Activity Survey, to identify individuals that fall into Type A or Type B personality types. It was expected for participants to have higher cardiovascular reactivity, as measured by heart rate and blood pressure, as the workload from the secondary task increased (no task with the lowest cardiovascular reactivity and text messaging with the highest). It was also expected that Type A would exhibit riskier driving behaviors than Type B, particularly during periods of greatest effort (i.e. texting).
Status: Data Analysis
Publications and Presentations:
*McManus, B., *Cox, M.K., Vance, D.E., & Stavrinos, D. (in press, 2015). Predicting motor vehicle collisions in a driving simulator in young adults using the useful field of view assessment. Traffic Injury Prevention.
*Amin, A., *Welburn, S.C., *Cox, M., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., Stavrinos, D. (2012, February). Effect of type A personality on self-reported distracted driving. Poster presented at the 2012 Southeastern Psychological Association Annual Meeting. New Orleans, LA.
*Cox, M., *Amin, A., *Welburn, S.C., *Denny, S.J., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., Stavrinos, D. (2012, February). Predicting motor vehicle crashes in young adults using UFOV. Poster presented at the 2012 Southeastern Psychological Association Annual Meeting. New Orleans, LA.
PI: Dr. Despina Stavrinos
Funding Sponsors: UAB University Transportation Center & Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Center for Child Injury Prevention Studies
Abstract: A Pilot Study for Distracted Driving in Teens With and Without ADHD is a project which main objective was to examine what effect two common forms of distractions (cell phone & text messaging) might have on increased motor-vehicle injury risk in teens with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Combined Type (ADHD-C) – a group that has been identified as at particular risk for injury.
Status: Data Analysis
Publications and Presentations:
Stavrinos, D., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., *Welburn, S.C., *Johnson, H.D., Griffin, R., Underhill, A.T., & Fine, P.R. (in press, 2015). Distracted driving in teens with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Pediatric Nursing (Special Issue: Health Care Transition for Adolescents and Emerging Adults with Special Health Care Needs and Disabilities).
*Johnson, H., *Mosley, P., *McManus, B., *Wittig, S., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, October). Slower social hazard reaction time in teen drivers with and without ADHD. Accepted for oral presentation at the 2015 Road Safety & Simulation International Conference. Orlando, FL.
*Wagner, W., *Johnson, H., *McManus, B., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, April). The effects of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder on the Composition of Cell Phone Text Messages. Poster presented at the 2015 UAB Department of Psychology John W. P. Ost Undergraduate Research Competition, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL.
*Johnson, H., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, March). Hazard perception in teen drivers with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Presented at the 2015 UAB Graduate Student Research Day. Birmingham, AL. [Second place prize for oral presentation competition].
*Daniel, M., *Johnson, H., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, January). ADHD symptom severity as a predictor of poor driving performance in teens. Poster presented at the 7th Annual Southeast Regional ADHD Conference. Orange Beach, AL.
*Wagner, W., *Johnson, H., *McManus, B., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, January). The effects of
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder on the Composition of Cell Phone Text Messages. Poster presented at the 7th Annual Southeast Regional ADHD Conference. Orange Beach, AL.
*Garner, A.A., *Gentry, A.N., *Welburn, S.C., Fine, P.R., Franklin, C.A., & Stavrinos, D. (2014). Symptom dimensions of disruptive behavior disorders in adolescent drivers. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18, 496-503.
*Johnson, H., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C., *Welburn, S.C., Griffin, R., Underhill, A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2014, May). The detrimental impact of distracted driving on teens with and without ADHD. Poster presented at the 26th Annual Meeting for the Association for Psychological Science, San Francisco, CA.
*Denny, S.J., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Welburn, S.C., Griffin, R., Fine, P.R., Stavrinos, D. (2012, April). Effect of medication on driving performance in adolescents with ADHD. Poster presented at the 2012 UAB Department of Psychology John W. P. Post Undergraduate Research Competition, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL.
*Denny, S.J., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Welburn, S.C., Griffin, R., Fine, P.R., Stavrinos, D. (2012, April). Effect of medication on driving performance in adolescents with ADHD. Presented at the 10th Annual University of Alabama System Honors Research Conference, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL. [First place prize for oral presentation competition]
*Denny, S.J., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Welburn, S.C., Griffin, R., Fine, P.R., Stavrinos, D. (2012, April). Effect of medication on driving performance in adolescents with ADHD. Presented at the 2012 UAB Undergraduate Research Expo, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL. [First place prize for oral presentation competition]
*Denny, S.J., Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Welburn, S.C., Griffin, R., Fine, P.R., Stavrinos, D. (2012, March). Effect of medication on driving performance in adolescents with ADHD. Presented at the 13th Annual McNair Scholars and Undergraduate Research National Research Conference, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.
*Gentry, A.N., Franklin, C.A., *Garner, A.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, August). Dimensions of disruptive behavior disorders in relation to risky driving behaviors in novice drivers. Poster presented at the 2011 American Psychological Association (APA) Convention. Washington, D.C.
*Denny, S., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, July). Effect of intelligence and text length on distracted driving performance. Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Summer Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL. [Third place prize in student poster competition]
*Martin, A.N., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, July). Misperceptions of distracted driving ability and risk among teens with or without ADHD. Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Summer Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL.
Stavrinos, D. (2011, May). A pilot study for distracted driving in teens with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. US Department of Transportation – UAB University Transportation Center.
Stavrinos, D. (2011, May). A pilot study for distracted driving in teens with and without ADHD. Presented at the 2011 UAB UTC Annual Advisory Board Meeting, Birmingham, AL.
Stavrinos, D. & Franklin, C.A. (2011, April). Racial disparities in distracted driving. Presented at the 2011 UAB Health Disparities Research Symposium. Birmingham, AL.
*Amin, A., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, April). Assessing the role of sociability in distracted driving. Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL. [Third place prize for student poster competition]
*Denny, S., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, April). Exploring differences in cognitive abilities between adolescents with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL. [First place prize for student poster competition]
*Mangieri, S., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, April). It’s not just distracted driving! Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL. [Third place prize for student poster competition]
*Welburn, S.C., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, April). Psychometric validity of Questionnaire of Assessing Distracted Driving (QUADD). Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL. [First place prize for student poster competition]
*Williams, L., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, April). Effect of distracted driving on visual attention. Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL. [Third place prize for student poster competition]
*Jones, J.L., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, April). Factors influencing parental decisions on teen licensure. Poster presented at the 2011 Joint Annual Meeting of the Safe States Alliance and Society for Advancement of Violence and Injury Research (SAVIR). Iowa City, IA.
Stavrinos, D., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Griffin, R., & Fine, P.R. (2011, March). Piloting a cognitive intervention for adolescent drivers with and without ADHD. Poster presented at the 27th Annual UAB Department of Medicine Trainee Research Symposium, Birmingham, AL.
*Garner, A.A., Fine, P.R., *Hyndman, L., & Stavrinos, D. Positive illusory bias in distracted teen drivers with ADHD. (2011, March). Poster presented at the 27th Annual UAB Department of Medicine Trainee Research Symposium, Birmingham, AL.
*Jones, J.L., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, March). Can individual differences predict distracted driving performance in young adults? Poster presented at the 27th Annual UAB Department of Medicine Trainee Research Symposium, Birmingham, AL.
*Jones, J.L., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, February). Factors influencing parental decisions on teen licensure. Presented at the 2011 UAB Graduate Student Research Day Competition. Birmingham, AL.
*Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., Sattin, R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011). Distracted driving among adolescents: challenges and opportunities. Injury Prevention, 17, 285.
*Jhala, K., *Garner, A.A., *Welburn S., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos D. (2010, November). Effect of effortful control on driving in adolescents with ADHD. Poster presented at the 22nd Annual CHADD International Conference on ADHD. Atlanta, GA.
*Garner, A.A., *Hyndman, L., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2010, November). Positive illusory bias in distracted teen drivers with ADHD. Poster presented at the 22nd Annual CHADD International Conference on ADHD. Atlanta, GA.
*Welburn, S., *Garner, A.A., *Jhala, K., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2010, November). Distracted driving in adolescents with ADHD. Poster presented at the 22nd Annual CHADD International Conference on ADHD. Atlanta, GA.
Stavrinos, D. (2010, May). A pilot study for distracted driving in teens with and without ADHD. Presented at the 2010 UAB UTC Annual Advisory Board Meeting, Birmingham, AL.
*Garner, A.A., Stavrinos, D. (2010, April). Influence of parental distracted driving on teens with and without ADHD. Poster presented at the 2010 Simpson Ramsey Symposium, Civitan International Research Center, Birmingham, AL. [First place prize for student poster competition]
*Welburn, S.C., *Garner, A.A., *Schwartz, M., & Stavrinos, D. (2010, April). Developing a self-report measure of distracted driving in young adults. Poster presented at the 2010 UAB Expo, Birmingham, AL.
Stavrinos, D. (2010, March). Individual differences in perception of distracted driving ability in teenage drivers. Poster presented at the 26th Annual UAB Department of Medicine Trainee Research Symposium, Birmingham, AL.
PI: Dr. Despina Stavrinos
Funding Sponsors: Georgia Tech for the US Department of Transportation, Alabama Department of Transportation, and the UAB Department of Psychology.
Abstract: Drivers Interactions Across the Lifespan Study (DIALS) is a project that address the growing concern that roadside advertising presents a real risk to driving safety, with conservative estimates putting external distractors responsible for up to 10% of all traffic incidents. The overarching goal is to investigate the issue of digital billboard distractibility across the lifespan, namely younger adults (16-19), middle age adults (35-54), and older adults (65+). Participants will complete a series of questionnaires addressing various individual difference factors such as demographics, medications, driving history, driving experience, personality, executive function, memory, and visual attention and acuity. Participants will also drive in a simulator which contains an eye tracking system. The use of the driving simulator is provided by through the UAB Roybal Center for Translational Research on Aging and Mobility.
Status: Data Analysis
Publications and Presentations:
*Decker, J.S., *Stannard, S.J., *McManus, B., *Wittig, S.M.O., Sisiopiku, V.P., & Stavrinos, D. (2015). The impact of billboards on driver visual attention: A systematic literature review. Traffic Injury Prevention, 16, 234-239.
Stavrinos, D., *Mosley, P., *Wittig, S., *McManus, B., & *Johnson, H. (2015, October). Cognitive predictors of inattention blindness in drivers across the lifespan. Accepted for oral presentation at the 2015 Road Safety & Simulation International Conference. Orlando, FL.
Islam, M.M., Sisiopiku, V.P., Stavrinos, D., Haleem, K., Alluri, P., & Gan, A. (2015, March). Investigation of the potential relationship between crash occurrence and the presence of digital advertising billboards in Alabama and Florida. Poster presented at the 2015 University Transportation Center (UTC) Conference for the Southeastern Region. Birmingham, AL.
*Wittig, S.M.O. & Stavrinos, D. (2014, October). Measurement of cognitive distraction in drivers across the lifespan. Poster presented at the UAB Comprehensive Center for Health Aging 22nd Annual Scientific Symposium. Birmingham, AL.
Sisiopiku, V.P., Islam, M., *Wittig, S.M.O., & Stavrinos, D. (2014, July). Perceived and real impacts of digital advertising billboards on driving performance. Paper presented at the 5th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics, Krakow, Poland.
*Wittig, S.M.O. & Stavrinos, D. (2014, May). Measurement of cognitive distraction in drivers across the lifespan. Poster presented at the 26th Annual Meeting for the Association for Psychological Science, San Francisco, CA.
*Wittig, S.M.O., *Johnson, H., Caamano, E.X., Sisiopiku, V.P., & Stavrinos, D. (2014, March). The effects of billboard content on the distractibility of drivers across the lifespan. Poster presented at the 2014 University Transportation Center (UTC) Conference for the Southeastern Region, Atlanta, GA.
*Johnson, H.D., *Wittig, S.M.O., Caamano, E., & Stavrinos, D. (2013, October). Self-reported distracted driving in older adults. Poster presented at the UAB Comprehensive Center for Healthy Aging 21st Annual Scientific Symposium. Birmingham, Alabama.
*Wittig, S., *Johnson, H.D., Caamano, E., Sisiopiku, V.P., & Stavrinos, D. (2013, October). Perception of billboard distraction among older drivers. Poster presented at the UAB Comprehensive Center for Healthy Aging 21st Annual Scientific Symposium. Birmingham, Alabama.
Sisiopiku, V.P., Hester, D., Gan, A., Stavrinos, D., & Sullivan, A. (2013, June). Digital roadside advertising and traffic safety. Presented at the 3rd Annual International Conference on Civil Engineering. Athens, Greece.
*Decker, J. S., Clay, O.J., *Stannard, S.J., *McManus, B., & Stavrinos, D. (2013, April). The impact of billboards on drivers’ visual attention: A meta-analysis. Poster presented at 2013 UAB Department of Psychology John W. Post Undergraduate Research Competition, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL.
*Wittig, S.M.O., *Motamedi Lamouki, A., Sisiopiku, V., Hester, D., Sullivan, A., & Stavrinos, D. (2013, April). The distractibility of digital billboards: A driving simulator study. Presented at the Regional Conference for University Transportation Centers (UTCs) in the Southeastern Region, Orlando, FL.
*Decker, J. S., Clay, O.J., *Stannard, S.J., *McManus, B., & Stavrinos, D. (2013, April). The impact of billboards on drivers’ visual attention: A meta-analysis. Poster presented at the Southern Regional Honors Conference. Louisville, KY.
Caamano, E., *Chu, J., *Meadows, D., *Wittig, S.M.O., *Decker, J., *Stannard, S., *Parrish, H., *Motamedi Lamouki, A., *Johnson, H., & Stavrinos, D. (2013, April). Digital advertising billboards: A public health concern. Poster presented at the Alabama Public Health Association Annual Educational Conference, Birmingham, AL. [Honorable mention in poster competition]
Stavrinos, D., Sisiopiku, V.P., Hester, D., Decker, J. (2013, February). Roadside advertising and road safety. Presented at the Center for Advanced Transportation Systems Simulation (CATSS) University Transportation Center Symposium. Orlando, FL.
PI: Drs. Philip Russ Fine, Despina Stavrinos
Funding Sponsor: UAB Department of Medicine, UAB University Transportation Center
Abstract: Impact of Distraction and Health on Commercial Driving Performance (NTRCI) was a among the first the first to examine the interaction of the psychological aspects of distracted driving and physical health in commercial truck drivers. Fifty-five commercial drivers between the ages of 21 and 65 were recruited from Alabama-based trucking companies. Participants completed four activities while driving in commercial truck driving simulator: (1) talking on a cell phone, (2) text messaging, (3) using an onboard mobile communication device, and (4) driving with no distraction. Participants also completed questionnaires to provide basic health and demographic information, driving history, and experience with electronic devices, as well as a brief physical health assessment.
Status: Data Analysis
Publications and Presentations:
*McManus, B., Heaton, K., Vance, D.E., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, October). The useful field of view assessment predicts simulated commercial motor vehicle driving performance. Poster accepted for presentation at the 2015 Road Safety & Simulation International Conference. Orlando, FL.
*Parrish, H., Heaton, K., Griffin, R., & Stavrinos, D. (2013, April). Relationship between commercial truck drivers’ self-evaluation of driving experience and skill and driving simulator performance. Presented at the Southern Regional National Honors Conference. Louisville, Kentucky.
Stavrinos, D., Heaton, K.H. (2012, March). Impact of distraction and health on commercial motor vehicle driving performance: Final Results. Presented to the Federal Highway Administration – Alabama Division. Montgomery, AL.
*McManus, B., Heaton, K., Griffin, R., *Welburn, S.C., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2012, March). Effect of secondary tasks on visual attention in commercial motor vehicle drivers. Poster presented at the 28th Annual UAB Department of Medicine Trainee Research Symposium, Birmingham, AL.
*Welburn, S.C., Heaton, K., Griffin, R., *McManus, B., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., Stavrinos, D. (2012, March). Piloting the use of the Questionnaire Assessing Distracted Driving (QUADD) in commercial motor vehicle (CMV) drivers. Poster presented at the 28th Annual UAB Department of Medicine Trainee Research Symposium, Birmingham, AL.
Fine, P.R., Heaton, K., Stavrinos, D., McGwin, G., Vance, D., Foster, P.J., Franklin, C.A., & Hanowski, R. (2012, February). Impact of distraction and health on commercial driving performance. US Department of Transportation – National Transportation Research Center, Inc.
Stavrinos, D., Heaton, K.H. (2011, October). Impact of distraction and health on commercial motor vehicle driving performance. Presented to the Federal Highway Administration – Alabama Division. Montgomery, AL.
PI: Dr. Despina Stavrinos
Funding Sponsor: University Transportation Center for Alabama
Abstract: Impact of Distracted Driving on Congestion (Congestion Study) was a project that sought to examine the driving behavior of 75 individuals between 16 and 25 years of age in a virtual driving simulator with driving conditions varying across three levels of service as outlined in the Highway Capacity Manual (free flow, stable flow, and unstable flow) and three levels of distraction (cell phone conversation, text messaging, and undistracted). We predicted that engagement in any distracting condition (cell phone conversation or text messaging) would evoke driving behavior that may lead to reduced traffic flow (e.g., fewer lane changes, slower driving speed, increased number of MVCs, and close calls) and expected this effect to be greatest during text messaging. The study also examined several individual differences factors that could predict risky driving behavior under varying traffic and distraction conditions. We predicted that those who are high sensation seekers will display riskier behavior (e.g., smaller gap acceptances when turning and changing lanes, smaller intervals to lead vehicles) when in the highest congestion condition (i.e., unstable flow) than those who are low sensation seekers.
Status: Data Analysis
Publications and Presentations:
Stavrinos, D., *Jones, J.L., *Garner, A.A., Griffin, R., Franklin, C.A., Ball, D., *Welburn, S.C., Ball, K.K., Sisiopiku, V.P., & Fine, P.R. (2013). Impact of distracted driving on safety and traffic flow. Accident Analysis and Prevention (Special Issue: Emerging Research Methods and Their Application to Road Safety), 61, 63-70.
*Williams, L.A., *McManus, B., Stavrinos, D. (2012). Effect of distraction and traffic congestion on visual attention. UAB Inquiro, 6, 21-22.
*Denny, S.J., *McManus, B.M., *Walters, M., Stavrinos, D. (2012, July). Distracted driving impacts merging onto an interstate for teen and young adult drivers. Poster presented at the 2012 UAB Summer Undergraduate Research Expo, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL. [First place prize for student poster competition]
*Walters, M., *McManus, B.M., *Denny, S.J., *Kim, S., Stavrinos, D. (2012, July). Self reported risky driving behavior predicts greater speed while merging. Poster presented at the 2012 UAB Summer Undergraduate Research Expo, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL. [First place prize for student poster competition]
Stavrinos, D., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Ball, K.K., Sisiopiku, V., Ball, D. & Fine, P.R. (2011, September). Impact of distracted driving on traffic flow parameters. Presented at the 3rd International Conference for Road Safety and Simulation. Indianapolis, IN.
*Amin, A., *Chenoweth, J.B., *Kapoor, P., *McManus, B., *Welburn, S.C., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, July). Cell phone application use and types among young distracted drivers. Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Summer Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL. [First place prize for student poster competition]
*Denny, S., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, July). Effect of intelligence and text length on distracted driving performance. Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Summer Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL. [Third place prize in student poster competition]
Stavrinos, D., Fine, P.R., Franklin, C.A., Ball, K.K., Ball, D., Griffin, R., & Sisiopiku, V.P. (2011, May). Impact of distracted driving on congestion. US Department of Transportation – University Transportation Center for Alabama.
*Williams, L., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, April). Effect of distracted driving on visual attention. Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL. [Third place prize for student poster competition]
PIs: Drs. Lesley Ross and Despina Stavrinos
Funding Sponsors: The UAB Faculty Development Grant Program, Southeastern Transportation Research, Innovation, Development & Education Center (STRIDE), Alabama Department of Transportation, and the UAB Roybal Center for Translational Research on Aging and Mobility.
Abstract: Senior and Adolescent Naturalistic Driving Study (SANDS) is a project that addresses one of the leading causes of deaths for individuals across the lifespan: motor vehicle crashes. The overarching goal is to examine unbiased real-world driving in at-risk drivers across the lifespan, namely younger (16-19) and older (65+) adults. Participants will undergo a detailed baseline assessment of demographics, health status, cognitive function, sensory function, and physical function. Their vehicles will then be installed with a data recording device that will provide data with detailed information regarding the trip including driving behaviors, driving environment, and driving safety across two weeks. Finally, participants will return for a post-test assessment and for removal of the devices.
Status: Data Analysis
Publications and Presentations:
*Parr, M.N., Ross, L.A., *McManus, B., *Wittig, S.M., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, April). Differential impact of personality traits on distracted driving behaviors in teens and older adults. Poster presented at the 2015 UAB Department of Psychology John W. P. Ost Undergraduate Research Competition, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL. [First place prize in student poster competition]
*Parr, M.N., Ross, L.A., *McManus, B., *Wittig, S.M., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, March). Differential impact of personality traits on distracted driving behaviors in teens and older adults. Poster presented at the 2015 University Transportation Center (UTC) Conference for the Southeastern Region. Birmingham, AL.
*McManus, B., Ross, L.A., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, March). Do adolescents prioritize advanced vehicle safety features? Poster presented at the 2015 University Transportation Center (UTC) Conference for the Southeastern Region. Birmingham, AL.
*Pope, C.N., Ross, L.A., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, March). Am I a good driver? Can self-ratings
of global driving experience and quality predict risky driving behavior in teen drivers? Poster presented at the 2015 University Transportation Center (UTC) Conference for the Southeastern Region. Birmingham, AL.
*Wittig, S.M., Ross, L.A., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, March). Comparisons among mother-daughter and mother-son self-reported driving styles. Poster presented at the 2015 University Transportation Center (UTC) Conference for the Southeastern Region. Birmingham, AL.
*Wittig, S.M., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, March). Comparisons among mother-daughter and mother-son self-reported driving styles. Presented at the 2015 UAB Graduate Student Research Day. Birmingham, AL.
*Pope, C.N., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, March). Can self-reported executive dysfunction predict teen risky driving behavior? Presented at the 2015 UAB Graduate Student Research Day. Birmingham, AL.
*Pope, C.N., Ross, L.A., *McManus, B., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, January). Can self-reported executive dysfunction predict crash involvement and traffic citations in teen drivers? Poster presented at the 93rd Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC.
*Wittig, S.M.O., Ross, L.A., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, January). Impact of gender and age on self-reported driving styles in drivers across the lifespan. Poster presented at the 93rd Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC.
Stavrinos, D., Ross, L.A. (2014, August). A Naturalistic study of driving across the lifespan. US Department of Transportation – Southeastern Transportation Research Innovation Development and Education Center (STRIDE).
*Terdalkar, S., Stavrinos, D., Caamano, E., Sisiopiku, V., Ross, L.A. (2014, January). Validation of a data acquisition device in the Senior and Adolescent Naturalistic Driving Study (SANDS). Poster presented at the 93rd Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC.
Stavrinos, D., Schmidt, E., Caamano, E., Wittig, S.M.O., Sisiopiku, V., Classen, S., & Ross, L. A. (2013, April). Development of a naturalistic study of driving across the lifespan. Presented at the Regional Conference for University Transportation Centers (UTCs) in the Southeastern Region. Orlando, FL.
*Schmidt, E., Ross, L. A., Caamano, E., & Stavrinos, D. (2013, April). Development of a comprehensive physical, sensory, and cognitive assessment battery for driving safety and behavior. Poster presented at the Regional Conference for University Transportation Centers (UTCs) in the Southeastern Region, Orlando, FL. [Third place prize in student poster competition]
*McManus, B., Stavrinos, D., *Wittig, S.M.O., Odom, E., Patel, R., Underwood, L., Schmidt, E., & Ross, L.A. (2013, January). A systematic review of driving safety in naturalistic studies. Poster presented at the 92nd Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC.
*Wittig, S.M.O., Ross, L.A., *McManus, B., *Stannard, S., *Parrish, H., *Walters, M., *Decker, J. S., *Denny, S.J., *Robinson, E., *Motamedi Lamouki, A., & Stavrinos, D. (2013, January). Distracted driving: A systematic literature review of naturalistic studies. Poster presented at the 92nd Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board.
Washington, DC.
*Stannard, S., *Wittig, S.M.O., & Stavrinos, D. (2013, April). Predictors of pedestrian safety in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: The role of inhibition and monitoring. Poster presented at the University of Georgia at Athens Interdisciplinary Research Conference. Athens, GA.
Schwebel, D.C., Stavrinos, D., Byington, K.W., Davis, T., O’ Neal, E.E., & de Jong, D. (2012). Distraction and pedestrian safety: How talking on the phone, texting, and listening to music impact crossing the street. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 45, 266-271.
Stavrinos, D., Biasini, F.J., Fine, P.R., Hodgens, J.B., Khatri, S., Mrug, S., & Schwebel, D.C. (2011). Mediating factors associated with pedestrian injury in children with ADHD. Pediatrics, 128, 296-302.
Stavrinos, D., Byington, K.W., & Schwebel, D.C. (2011). Distracted walking: Cell phones increase injury risk for college pedestrians. Journal of Safety Research, 42, 101-107.
Renfroe, M., Stavrinos, D., Mizzell, J., de Jong, D.M., & Schwebel, D.C. (2010, April). Pedestrian safety and listening to music. Poster presented at the Society for Behavioral Medicine. Seattle, WA.
Schwebel, D.C., Stavrinos, D., Kongable, E.M. (2009). Attentional control, high intensity pleasure, and risky pedestrian behavior in college students. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 41, 658-661.
Stavrinos, D., Byington, K.W., & Schwebel, D.C. (2009). The effect of cell phone distraction on
pediatric pedestrian injury risk. Pediatrics, 123, e179-e185.
Schwebel, D.C., Dulion, D., Stavrinos, D. (2009). The influence of carrying a backpack on college student pedestrian safety. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 41, 352-356.
Byington, K.W., Stavrinos, D., & Schwebel, D.C. (2009, May). Talking on a cell phone increases pedestrian injury risk. Poster presented at the 21st Annual Meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, San Francisco, CA.
de Jong, D.M., Stavrinos, D., Davis, T., Byington, K.W., & Schwebel, D.C. (2009, April). The risks of young adults text messaging while driving. Poster presented at the 7th Annual Troy University Psychology Conference, Troy, AL.
Stavrinos, D., Byington, K.W., Davis, T., & Schwebel, D.C. (2009, March). The role of cell phones in college pedestrian injury risk. Poster presented at the 2009 Society for the Advancement of Violence and Injury Research, Atlanta, GA.
Pitts, D.D., Stavrinos, D., & Schwebel, D.C. (2009, March). Influence of carrying a backpack on pedestrian safety. Poster presented at the 2009 Society for the Advancement ofViolence and Injury Research, Atlanta, GA.
Cotney, R., Stavrinos, D., Knauss, M.E., White, K., & Schwebel, D.C. (2009, March). Injury Behavior Checklist validation: Children with ADHD. Poster presented at the 2009 Society for the Advancement of Violence and Injury Research, Atlanta, GA.
Knauss, M.E., Stavrinos, D., Pendleton, S., de Jong, D., & Schwebel, D.C. (2009, March). Visual inattention in ADHD and risky pedestrian behavior. Poster presented at the 2009 Society for the Advancement of Violence and Injury Research, Atlanta, GA.
Pendleton, S., Stavrinos, D., Cotney, R., Bridgmon, K., & Schwebel, D.C. (2009, March). How temperament and ADHD predict child pedestrian injury. Poster presented at the 2009 Society for the Advancement of Violence and Injury Research, Atlanta, GA.
Stavrinos, D., Schwebel, D.C. (2009, February). Assessing executive functioning in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Combined Type. Poster presented at the 37th Annual Meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Atlanta, GA.
Ahmadi, A., Mohammadi, R., Stavrinos, D., Almasi, A., & Schwebel, D. C. (2009, February). Self-immolation in Iran. Paper presented at the first national seminar on suicidal behaviors and prevention strategies in Iran, Tehran, Iran. [Best paper of conference and first prize award. Also published as an abstract in Journal of Research in Behavioural Sciences, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 13-14]
Underhill, A.T., Stavrinos, D. (2009, January). People are interested in transportation related careers – They just don’t realize it. Paper presented at the 88th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC.
Stavrinos, D., Ackerman, M., Schwebel, D.C., Ball, K. (2008, May). Developmental differences in visual processing skills. Poster presented at the 20th Annual Meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, Chicago, IL.
Byington, K.W., Stavrinos, D., Norris, H.R., Davis, T., & Schwebel, D.C. (2008, April). The effect of cell phone distraction on child pedestrian safety. Poster presented at the National Conference in Child Health Psychology, Miami Beach, FL.
Fanaei, K., Stavrinos, D., Craig, L., Byington, K.W., Pitts, D.D., Schwebel, D.C., & The UAB Youth Safety Lab. (2008, April). Epidemiology of cell phone use in 10- to 12-year-olds, and implications for child safety. Poster presented at the National Conference in Child Health Psychology, Miami Beach, FL.
Norris, H.R., Byington, K.W., Stavrinos, D., Kongable, L., & Schwebel, D.C. (2008, April). The role of temperamental differences on pediatric pedestrian safety. Poster presented at the National Conference in Child Health Psychology, Miami Beach, FL. [First place prize for student poster competition]
Pitts, D.D., Stavrinos, D., Byington, K.W., Fanaei, K., & Schwebel, D.C. (2008, April). Epidemiology of walking in 10-to 12-year olds. Poster presented at the National Conference in Child Health Psychology, Miami Beach, FL.
Stavrinos, D., Schwebel, D.C., & Biasini, F. (2007, November). Relations between executive function and increased pedestrian injury risk. Paper presented at the 58th Annual Meeting of the Society for Public Health Education, Alexandria, VA.
Davis, A.L., Stavrinos, D., & Schwebel, D.C. (2007, May). A study of walking speed at a crosswalk. Poster presented at the 19th Annual Meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, Washington, DC.
Stavrinos, D., Gaines, J., Davis, A.L., Severson, J., & Schwebel, D.C. (2007, May). Developmental trends in pedestrian safety: How children choose traffic gaps. Poster presented at the 19th Annual Meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, Washington, DC.
Oswalt, K., Biasini, F., Lane, J., & Stavrinos, D. (2007, May). Developmental outcomes of neonates who displayed seizure-like behavior in the newborn period. Poster presented at the 19th Annual Meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, Washington, DC.
Davis, A.L., Stavrinos, D., Gaines, J., & Schwebel, D.C. (2006, November). Comparing laboratory walking speeds to actual crossing speed: Validation for virtual reality research. Poster presented at the Alabama Psychological Association Fall Convention, Birmingham, AL.
Ackerman, M., Stavrinos, D., Ross, L., Edwards, J., & Ball, K. (2006, May). Role of attention-switching as an indicator of driving cessation. Poster presented at the 18th meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, New York, New York.
Stavrinos, D., Biasini, F., & Andrews, W. (2006, May). The unitary nature of executive functioning in children born prematurely. Poster presented at the 18th meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, New York, NY.
Walley, A.C., Stavrinos, D. (2006, May). Longitudinal relations between spoken word recognition, phoneme awareness, and beginning reading. Poster presented at the 18th meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, New York, NY.
Stavrinos, D., Biasini, F., & Andrews, W. (2006, March). The unitary nature of executive functioning in children born prematurely. Poster presented at the 2006 Simpson Ramsey Symposium, Civitan International Research Center, Birmingham, AL. [First place prize for student poster competition]
Walley, A.C., Stavrinos, D., & Imai, S. (2005, May). Speech learning and the development of
spoken word recognition. Paper presented at The 1st Meeting of the Acoustical Society
of America on Second Language Speech Learning (Symposium in Honor of James E. Flege), Vancouver, Canada.
Williamson, M. L., Elliott, T.R., Berry, J.W., Underhill, A.T., Stavrinos, D., Fine, P.R. (2013). Predictors of health-related quality of life following traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 27, 992-999.
Williamson, M. L. C., Elliott, T. R., Berry, J. W., Underhill, A. T., Stavrinos, D., & Fine, P. R. (2013, February). Predictors of health-related quality of life following traumatic brain injury. Paper presented at the 2013 Rehabilitation Psychology Conference, Jacksonville, FL. [Awarded 2nd place for best student oral presentation]
Ball, K., Ross, L. A., Stavrinos, D., Heaton, K., & Clay, O. (2012, August). Performance based testing of driving skills/capability. US Department of Transportaiton – Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA).
Williamson, M., Elliott, T. R., Berry, J. W., Underhill, A. T., Stavrinos, D., & Fine, P. R. (2012, February). Predictors of quality of life after traumatic brain injury. Poster presented at the 14th annual Rehabilitation Psychology Conference, Fort Worth, TX.
*McManus, B., *Garner, A.A., Franklin, C.A., Fine, P.R., & Stavrinos, D. (2011, April). Enhancing productivity and work efficiency in a research laboratory. Poster presented at the 2011 University of Alabama at Birmingham Expo for Undergraduate Research. Birmingham, AL.
Stavrinos, D. & Schwebel, D.C. (2009). The role of psychology in injury prevention efforts. Injury Prevention, 15, 69.
Stavrinos, D. (2009, December). Definitions, data and research results. Panel moderator at the Alabama Distracted Driving Summit, Birmingham, AL.
Ahmadi, A., Mohammadi, R., Stavrinos, D., Almasi, A., & Schwebel, D. C. (2008). Self-Immolation in Iran. Journal of Burn Care and Research, 29, 451-460.
PI: Dr. Despina Stavrinos
CoPI: Haley Johnson Bishop
Status: Complete
Abstract: The leading cause of death among adolescents and young adults is motor vehicle collisions. Adolescents are at a high safety risk due to a number of factors including inexperience and incomplete brain development. These risks are even more prominent for novice drivers with developmental disabilities such as Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) because of additional impairments in processing speed, executive functioning, social communication and emotional regulation. Despite their elevated safety risk, little research has been done to better understand the driving capabilities of the increasingly more common population of drivers with ASD. The goals of this study are to characterize the driving performance and hazard perception of drivers with ASD, as well as investigating impairments in social skills as one possible mechanism that may affect driving performance. Drivers with ASD, a clinical control group of drivers with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and group of typically developing drivers will be asked to drive in a simulator where they will encounter a series of hazards classified as either social (e.g., human element involved such as pedestrians and cyclists) or non-social (e.g., non-human element involved such as roadway obstacles and other cars where no human driver can be seen). An assessment battery targeting social capabilities will be used to identify social impairment as a potential underlying mechanism of driving performance. Five indicators of overall driving performance will be recorded by the driving simulator: (1) root mean square (RMS) or standard deviation of lane position, (2) reaction time, (3) motor vehicle collisions, (4) speed fluctuation, and (5) number of speed exceedances. Response to hazards will be measured by examining the number of driving errors (e.g., greater RMS, slower reaction times, more motor vehicle collisions, and increased speed exceedances) surrounding the hazards presented in the driving scenario. Findings may allow future studies to target weaknesses in various abilities and develop driver training programs specific to the needs of this vulnerable population.
Publications and Presentations:
*Nolin, S., *McManus, B., Stavrinos, D. (2015, May). Increased anxiety and physiological response to stress while driving in individuals with developmental disabilities. Poster accepted for presentation at the 27th Annual Meeting of the Association for Psychological Science. New York, NY.
*Johnson [Bishop], H. & Stavrinos, D. (2015, April). Examining the driving performance of individuals with and without Autism Spectrum Disorders. Poster presented at the 2015 Simpson-Ramsey Conference, Birmingham, AL. [First place prize in student competition]
*Johnson [Bishop], H., *Mosley, P., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, February). Examining the driving performance of individuals with and without autism spectrum disorders. Poster presented at the 14th Annual Alabama Autism Conference. Tuscaloosa, AL.
*Johnson [Bishop], H., O’Kelley, S., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, January). Presence and severity of autism symptoms in individuals with and without ADHD. Poster presented at the 7th Annual Southeast Regional ADHD Conference. Orange Beach, AL.
*Nolin, S., *McManus, B., *Johnson, H., *Mosley, P., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, January). The effects of stress and anxiety on driving performance in drivers with ADHD and ASD. Poster presented at the 7th Annual Southeast Regional ADHD Conference. Orange Beach, AL.
*Johnson [Bishop], H.D., Stavrinos, D. (2016, March). Driving performance and hazard perception in adolescent with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Symposium presentation at the 2016 Society for Research on Adolescence Biennial Meeting. Baltimore, MD.
*Bishop, H.J., Stavrinos, D. (2016, January). Social skills deficits in adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder. Poster presented at the 8th Annual Southeast Regional ADHD Conference. Orange Beach, AL.
*Bishop, H.J., Stavrinos, D. (2016, January). Evaluating driving performance of adolescents and young adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders around social and non-social hazards. Presented at 95th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC.
*Johnson [Bishop], H., Stavrinos, D. (2015, October). Examining the driving performance of individuals with and without Autism Spectrum Disorders. Poster presented at the 2015 Graduate Student Research Exchange. Birmingham, AL. [First place prize in student competition]
*Johnson [Bishop], H., *Mosley, P., *McManus, B., *Wittig, S., & Stavrinos, D. (2015, October). Slower social hazard reaction time in teen drivers with and without ADHD. Presented at the 2015 Road Safety & Simulation International Conference. Orlando, FL.
PI: Despina Stavrinos
Funding Sponsors: United States Department of Transportation – Nation Center for Transportation Systems and Management (NCTSPM); U-Haul, Inc.
Status: Complete
Description: This work involves the next phase of a previously piloted distracted driving education program hosted by U-Haul International, Inc., Alabama Attorney General Luther Strange, and the University of Alabama at Birmingham (“Arrive Alive: Stop the Texts, Stop the Wrecks”). Provisional pilot study findings suggested that a one-day distracted driving event targeting young drivers may be successful in changing the attitudes and behaviors of this at-risk group of drivers. The work is conducted in collaboration with one of the nation’s leading transportation based companies, U-Haul International, Inc., and tests whether provisional findings translate to high school students, a group of drivers that account for approximately 1 in 3 deaths due to motor vehicle collisions (MVCs). This study is among the first to objectively measure whether a one-day educational program is efficacious in changing young driver’s attitudes and behaviors towards distracted driving.
Publications and Presentations:
Stavrinos, D., *McManus, B. (2015, March). Private industry partnerships for transportation-based educational initiatives: distracted driving education with U-Haul International, Inc. Presented at the 2015 University Transportation Center (UTC) Conference for the Southeastern Region. Birmingham, AL.
Stavrinos, D., McManus, B. (March, 2016). A school-based intervention to promote safe adolescent attitudes towards distracted driving. Accepted for a symposium presentation at the 2016 Society for Research on Adolescence Biennial Meeting. Baltimore, MD.
Stavrinos, D., McManus, B. (March, 2016). Effects of a simulator-based training intervention on young drivers’ attitudes towards distracted driving. Accepted for a symposium presentation at the 2016 UTC Conference for the Southeastern Region. Knoxville, TN.
PI: Despina Stavrinos
Funding: Alabama Department of Transportation
Status: Complete
Description: Motor vehicle collisions (MVCs) are one of the leading causes of death for Alabamians across the lifespan. This study will use a new state-of-the-art high fidelity driving simulator, which will provide a hands-on, full-scale educational and research driving simulation experience for participants by examining the impact of roadway and driver factors on motor vehicle collisions in 100 at-risk drivers. Individual difference factors will also be examined to predict risky driving behavior under varying roadway conditions.
This study was the first to use the new Honda Pilot driving simulator.
PI: Despina Stavrinos (Co-PIs: Dr. Drew Davis, Dr. Kathy Monroe)
Funding Sponsor: UAB College of Arts and Sciences Interdisciplinary Team Award
Status: Complete
Description: The overall goal of this study is to examine the driving performance of teens following a mild TBI and explore when it is safe to return to driving. To accomplish this goal, we will measure driving performance among teen drivers with and without mild TBIs, and assess the influence of increased cognitive load on their driving performance using a high-fidelity driving simulator. Teen drivers with confirmed isolated mild TBIs ages 16 to 19 years old (n=15), along with matched healthy controls will be recruited within 2 weeks of injury from local clinics. Both groups will be scheduled for driving performance assessments (main outcome) on a driving simulator acutely (no later than 2 weeks post-injury) and again at 6 weeks post-injury. Additional functional outcomes (neuropsychological functions, functional disability, quality of life) will be assessed for both groups at the two time points. Post-TBI symptom information will be collected via a daily survey in the mild TBI group until symptom resolution.
.
PI: Despina Stavrinos (Co-PI: Dr. Thomas Novack)
Funding Sponsor: UAB Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Resident Physician Collaborative Research in Functional Neurorecovery Grant
Status: Complete
Description: The overall goal of this study is to create a standardized, replicable simulated assessment of driving performance in scenarios of varying complexity, delivered within the safe environment of a driving simulator. This aims of this study are (1) to examine performance during a standardized simulated driving assessment among individuals with TBIs with varying levels of driver status (independent driving, on the cusp of driving, not able to return to driving); and (2) to validate the standardized driving assessment by comparing performance in the simulated assessment to neuropsychological measures predictive of poor driving outcomes among individuals with TBIs.
PI: Benjamin McManus
Funding Sponsor: Deep South Center for Occupational Health and Safety
Status: Complete
Description: Motor vehicle collisions (MVCs) are among the leading causes of death, and one of the major contributors to MVCs is driver fatigue. Sleepiness, fatigue, and stress negatively impact driving performance and are particularly common among surgical residents. Research and debate on the 2011 Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education duty hour standards have focused on patient care, resident education, and subjective resident well-being outcomes, but objective measures of residents’ safety have received little study, particularly post-duty driving safety.
The central hypothesis of this study is that post-duty driving performance will be predicted by effort demands of the duty period. Additionally, the effects that effort demands have on driving performance will depend on the levels of sleepiness, fatigue, and stress. Forty-two surgical residents will provide subjective and objective assessments of driving performance, physiological factors, and duty effort demands. Driving performance will be measured in a high fidelity driving simulator and self-report at 3 appointments: 1) before a duty period, and after a 2) low effort demand duty period, and 3) high effort demand duty period. Self-reported sleep, fatigue, and stress will be measured along with objective actigraphy data and cortisol measurement.
Two specific aims are proposed. Aim 1: Examine the differences in driving performance before and after low demand and high demand duty periods in surgical residents. Aim 2: Determine how post duty period driving performance is affected by levels of sleepiness, fatigue, and stress. Findings will fill critical knowledge gaps and potentially reduce MVCs by shaping policy regarding sleepiness, fatigue, and stress in surgical residents. Specific policy or interventions may be developed to curb high levels of sleepiness, fatigue, and stress post-duty, so that driving performance is less negatively affected by these critical factors.